Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay

Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay Introduction Language is an instrument of communication among people. It is a well structured and special characteristic of human interaction. According to Sapir (1921,p.8) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. Learning a new language involves such components as grammar, vocabulary and phonology. It is necessary to make a distinction between two processes: acquiring and learning a language. The former can be defined as a subconscious process that is identical to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language. Krashen (1985, p.1) states that learning refers to the conscious process that results in knowing about language. Ellis (1994) adds that learning is not as successful and long lasting as language acquisition. In order to be able to communicate, people should master the four skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing. The last skill which the researcher focussed on is a very complex process. As Allen and Corder (1974, p.177) say, it is the most difficult of the language abilities to acquire. When learners want to produce a piece of writing in second language (L2), they try to translate some First language (L1) words or phrases by applying rules from their L1. It is presumed that most of the problems facing L2 learners are caused by their mother tongue. If the contrast between L1 and L2 appears, the learners native language knowledge interferes with the target language and problems are difficult to avoid. However, a similarity of two languages in some situations may help L2 learning. The process that is responsible for this is called language transfer which is also known as cross-linguistic influence (Arabski, 1997). Many linguists have been interested in the nature of the learners la nguage and the major mistakes which arise in it. One of those was Corder (1981) who recognised the significance of interference and fossilisation in the process of second language learning, claiming that each L2 learner uses a special kind of a legitimate dialect governed by its own set of rules, some of them being peculiar to the learner and his native language(1981,p.25). Selinker (1974, p.35) also believed in the existence of a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learners attempted production of a TL norm. Such a system, which he referred to as interlanguage, is always different from the target language until the native speakers competence has been achieved by the learner. The concept of such an interim language added a new dimension to the learner language study. Before that, with contrastive analysis, linguists made only a one direction comparison between the first and the target language. With reference to Selinkers theory, language structure comprises the fundamental processes such as: (1) First language transfer; (2) Errors occurring as a result of this process are attributed to the learners native language influence; (3) Transfer of training; (4) Strategies of second language learning; (5) Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material (Selinker 1974, p.37) Polish language belongs to the West Slavonic branch of the Indo-European languages; it is closely related to Czech, Slovak and Russian. In some parts of Europe such as : Russia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine Polish is also used as a second language. In terms of the grammar, Polish is a very inflected language. There are numerous features, which distinguish the language from the other languages. A noun for example constitutes gender: masculine, feminine, neuter. Nouns, pronouns and adjectives have seven case forms, which have different endings. Another difficulty for Polish learners refers to phrasal verbs and articles that dont exist in their native language. Moreover Polish language also has indefinite fractional and collective numerals, which depend on the thing that is counted. All these contrasts lead to errors. In Poland people learn English as a foreign language. Polish learners are in a different situation than inhabitants of, for instance, India or Republic of South Africa as English is not their official language. Therefore, they have no need to develop assimilative or integrative motivation for learning English as they do not feel the drive to write and speak like native speakers and sustain high level of foreign language. In this way, Poles are far more interested in studying English for more instrumental purposes, such as: going abroad and finding a well-paid job, or getting a promotion in their native country. It also happens that they friendships acquired by means of the Internet has led to a desire to communicate with them, thus English seems to be most suitable as it is spoken all over the world. One of the benefits of knowing a foreign language skills is intercultural communication. English is becoming the most popular second language in the world. It is used as lingua franca, f or politics, and business and education. After changing the political system in Poland, English has become more popular and is considered an important part of a good education. It became a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools in Poland (Swan and Smith, 2001). Errors Every foreign language learner commits errors. As Brown (1980,p.164) claims second language learning in contrary to the first language learning is a process in trial-and-error nature. Teachers and researchers realized that L2 learners errors created a new system of language which had to be analyzed carefully. It is very important to make a distinction between various types of language behavior by giving the definition of error and mistake which are frequently misused. According to Ellis (1997,p.17) errors reflect gaps in a learners knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct As for the mistake Brown (1980,p.165) states that it refers to a performance error that is either random guess or a slip, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system . From the researchers experience as a Polish native it is necessary to state that Poles commit many errors, such as: syntactic, or semantic ones, and they are the ones in which either L1 and L2 (or both) play the mo st important role. This is partially caused by the fact that learners often experiment with prepositions and articles they know they cannot rely on the interference/transfer from Polish. Hence, they build their own hypotheses and try to insert the correct functional word. Moreover, some syntax errors are difficult to classify. Most of the deviances result from applying Polish syntactic rules to English phrases. The main difficulty is that the wrong choice of word results in the emergence of a semantic error, and if a larger phrase is written on the basis of L1 rules, it renders the whole phrase or sentence incomprehensible for a non- Polish speaker. Then, malformed sentences make English difficult to decode even for a proficient speaker. It has also been one of the main concerns of the branch of linguistics, which is, researching similarities and dissimilarities between first and foreign language acquisition, as well as determining the strategies which learners employ in the course of these processes. Teaching adolescent foreign language learners is a challenge for second language teachers and there are many reasons behind it. Firstly it is essential to emphasize the fact that in the case of children, acquiring L2 comes together with general cognitive and affective development of a child, which means that even though children have no meta-awareness, they are capable of automatic acquisition that is not hindered by personality, motivation, attitude or other factors (Brown, 2000). Older learners, such as adolescents or adults undergo the process of language acquisition in a different way. It looks more like a formal sort of learning (which is the result deliberate teaching) in the course of which explicit rules and language content are presented since the cognitive development is already completed in this age group. In other words, adolescents are able to think in abstract terms, they can learn far complex grammatical issues as the already developed meta-cognition and inductive lear ning ability allow them for that (Ellis,1995).There are various factors which influence second language learning. They include individual learner differences such as age, cognitive style, intelligence, motivation/needs, learners grammatical system and learners native language. According to Komorowska (2002) adults and adolescent learning is unnatural; it is much easier if they learn a second language or particular goals or reasons which results in a greater motivation. Littlewood (1984,p.53) confirms the importance of motivation for learning a second language: In second language learning as in every other field of human learning, motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres. According to Hopp (2004), two kinds of motivation can be distinguished: intrinsic and extrinsic. The former one is more prevalent among adults. The learners see language as an instrument to raise their self-esteem and achieve special goals such as getting a better job. The second kind of motivation is characteristic of a childs way of learning. Both these types of motivation are useful in the language learning process. Reason for choosing the topic Writing is a very important skill, however it causes much more problems than speaking or reading especially for L2 learners who think in their own language. In Poland the majority of secondary school pupils have not mastered this skill due to the lack of emphasis on teaching writing. During studies in Poland and working as a teacher of English, the researcher observed a number of errors made by Polish learners. A considerable number of these errors were similar to the ones she used to make as a beginner or even intermediate learner of English. Most of them reflected her lack of competence, knowledge of rules, whereas other errors were very much related to the writers mother tongue. Linguistically speaking, there were transfer errors, or, in other words, errors which involved interference e.g. Polish grammatical rules were applied to English. There are various reasons why the researcher has chosen this topic. One of these is differences between the two languages and also difficulties facing the learners from Poland. Although Polish students learn English language in primary and secondary schools, they are not able to produce correct sentences. They still try to translate sentences from their native language into English. All of the rules that need to be applied in L2 are different in L1. Thus, Polish learners and other non-native speakers (NNS) are prone to make more errors. 1.2. Aim and Objectives of the study The research has been conducted with reference to secondary school pupils from Poland. The overall aim of the study is to examine what type of errors are most common in the written discourse of the students. The associated research objectives are: What sorts of errors are most common in the written discourse of Polish learners of English as a foreign language? What is the percentage of various errors in learners written discourse? What are then the possible sources of those errors? How might the frequency of these errors be reduced? Why these errors occur? What could be done to improve written discourse? 1.3.Outline of the study The dissertation is divided into five chapters. It begins with the introduction describing the general background of the study. The second chapter provides a literature overview of theories related to errors and their sources. This part also shows classification and explanation of language behaviors. The definition of Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis can also be found it this chapter. A description of methodology can be found in the third chapter. The author discusses the instrument for collecting and analyzing the data. Chapter four deals with results from analysis of students errors in written compositions. Students samples and questionnaires are examined and interpreted in detail. The last chapter draws some conclusions on the research and considers recommendations for students and teachers. It also discusses implications for future teaching and research Chapter II Theoretical background 2.1 Nature of error It is obvious that every language learner is bound to make errors which are typically human characteristic. Errors have been of interest to many researchers as they are seen as a very important element in language acquisition. According to Norrish (1983) they can occur for many reasons; they may arise from the choice of the material, from the learners processing of the material or even from learners lack of attention. However the most serious kind of language deviances is caused by lack of learners knowledge. It is very important to introduce the distinction between errors, mistakes, lapses and slips. These terms are frequently misused by teachers. Although they have a similar meaning, the differences are significant. As for an error, numerous definitions have been given by different linguists with various attitudes towards errors. In most cases errors are regarded as negative language behavior. Norrish (1983,p.7) believed they are undesirable a sign of failure and systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it wrong. Corder (1967) and Richards (1974) also consider errors as deviations from a standard linguistic system. To support this assumption Corder (1967,p.166) says: Errors are systematic, consistent deviances characteristic of the learners linguistic system at a given stage of learning. The key point is that the learner is using a definite system of language at every point in his developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The learner errors are evidence of this system and are themselves systematic A similar attitude was presented by Dulay and Burt (1982,p.138) who considered errors as the flawed side of learners speech or writing. On the other hand errors can also be seen as an important and positive part of learning a language. :As Norrish (1983,p.6) states: the error itself may be a necessary part of learning a language. People are not able to detect errors because they have not learned the particular part of the material. Another linguist who was interested in this area was Ellis (1986,p.9), who also believed in the good side of error, stating: Errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterances. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Lightbown and Spada (1999) agreed with the positive sides of errors, claiming that they can be the result of seeking the correct structure of the language. A different, less serious type of language behavior is called a mistake. According to Corder (1967) mistakes are deviances due to performance factors which include limitation of memory or emotional strain. Ellis (1997,p.17) claims that mistakes are simply the result of slips of the tongue and should not be seen as the result of a wrong interpretation of some rules of the target language. Moreover, the learner who has made this kind of random inaccuracies can correct them when his attention is drawn to them. Norrish (1983) identifies two more terms related to errors such as: lapse and slips. The former one is defined as a type of wrong usage, which may occur due to lack of concentration or shortness of memory. He adds that this kind of wrong usage is not very serious and can be also made by native speakers at any time. The last type of language deviation described by Norrish (1983,p.8) is a careless slip, that is caused by the learners inattentiveness in class. 2.1.1. Significance of errors An essential theory referring importance of errors was introduced by Corder (1967) in his article The significance of learners errors. The author made a distinction between systematic and non systematic error (mistake). He noted that incorrect utterances were a sign of the language development. Moreover he provided evidence that errors are significant in three ways. Firstly to the teachers, errors can tell how far the learner progressed and what knowledge he has to learn to reach the aim. Furthermore they are helpful to the researcher as they demonstrate evidence of the way the language is learned and also methods that are used by a learner to discover the language. Thirdly, making of errors are regarded as a device used by a learner in order to learn. Corder (1967) also claims that making of errors is a strategy employed both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second languge. 2.2.Contrastive analysis In 1960 some new theoretical concepts were brought in to foreign language teaching that is: Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. As Connor (1996) stated the theory of second language learning assumed that before that time most errors were attributed to interference. Contrastive analysis (CA), a major branch of applied linguistics was a very valuable tool in language teaching methodology for both teachers and learners. It provided comparative and contrastive description of the learners native language and the target language. It was assumed that if teachers knew the structure of the learners MT, they would be able to prepare better teaching materials. Lado (1957 cited in James 1980) explained that the contrastive study was established to transfer some features of the L1 to the L2 .Practitioners of CA aimed at explaining particular aspects of L2 learning. They looked at correspondence between the two languages. Lightbown and Spada (1999,p.23) gave an explanation to that situation, stating: Contrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty. As James (1980) observed, there are three things that can be predicted by CA. They include areas which will cause problems, learners difficulties and learners errors. The aims of the method are pedagogical. As Lado (1957) cited in Ellis. The main aim of CA is pedagogical. As Lado (1957 cited in Edmondson 1999,p.92) states: The teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA was based on several of the following assumptions: theory defining language as habit language learning involves a new set of habits the main cause of errors in the production of L2 is learners mother tongue. CA considers differences between L1 and L2 learners should learn only dissimilarities between the two languages whereas similarities should be ignored difficulties are established by differences and similarities between L1 and L2 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis developed two positions that refers strong and weak version. In the strong version it was assumed that prediction could be made about learning and the success of teaching material after comparing the two languages. The weak version begins with an analysis of learners errors attempting to account for these errors on the basis of L1 and L2 differences. Besides the positive aspects of CA, researchers saw many problems deriving from comparison L1 and L2. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA could not predict all of the areas in learners difficulties. Moreover they claimed that it is inadequate to clarify the sources of certain types of errors. All of the disadvantages of CA led to development of another linguistic notion called Error Analysis. 2.3 Error Analysis Error analysis (EA) is a type of linguistic investigation which deals with the differences between learning a language and using the language by native speakers. According to Crystal (1980: 135) error analysis is described as: As a technique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the mistakes made by someone learning a foreign language, using any of principles and procedures provided by linguistics. A similar definition of Error Analysis (EA) is given by Brown (1980). He described it as a process of observation, classification of errors and after that revealing the systems used by learners. It was expanded when validity of CA was questioned. According Gass and Selinker (2001) EA offered more possible explanations than CA .It uses possibility of accounting for learners errors while CA attributed errors to mother tongue only. Corder (1967) stresses that EA has two aims: diagnostic, which shows the state of learners interlanguage and prognostic which predicts future learners problems. It focuses on the errors learners make in SLA, assuming that these errors can be easy to avoid if the learners mother tongue and the target language were compared (Richards, 1974). The analysis of the errors was carried out in order to detect difficulties in learning and to discover how a student learns a language. Moreover, EA is dealing with the exploring of the language of second language learners. 2.4. Procedures of Error Analysis There were three steps introduced by Corder (1967) in EA reseach: Data collection: recognition of idiosyncrasy Decription: Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect Explanation (the ultimate object of error analysis) Furthermore, Gass and Selinker (2001,p.79) recognized six steps in conducting error analysis. They include: Data collection, Identifying errors, classifying errors, quantifying errors, analysis of sources and remediation. Beside the advantages of EA, researchers found that it fell short in the analysis of SLA data. According to Gass and Selinker (2001,p.83) one of the problematic area was the attempt to ascribe causes to errors. EA assumed that errors belonged to one source or another. Dulay and Burt (1974b,p.115) identified the fact that EA cannot categorize errors. As a result they originate a category called ambiguous goofs which are defined as those that cant be categorized as either Interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goofs 2.4.1. Identifying errors In this step Corder (1974) prepared a model for recognizing erroneous or idiosyncratic utterances in L2. According to this pattern any sentences produced by learners can be investigated for idiosyncrasies. Based on that model, Corder made a distinction between overt and covert errors. As Ellis (1994) claims the first group of errors is very easy to identify due to the fact that a deviation in forms is very clear. Covertly erroneous sentences are superficially well formed but it can not be interpretable. This mean that the learner may create utterances that are produced on the basis of internalized rules. Overt errors involve utterances which are ungrammatical. As Allen and Corder (1974,p.126) added that recognition of error is thus crucially dependent upon correct interpretation of the learners intentions. 2.4.2. Description of errors The next step after recognizing the errors is describing them. There were a few attempts to describe errors using various taxonomies. Ellis (1997,p.18) among other linguists divided errors into categories. He presented a type of classification related to general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances. A similar error taxonomy was produced by Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982), who classified errors into four categories. They include omission, addition, misformation and misordering. The first kind occurs when some items are left out in well formed utterances. For example She writing. Addition involves producing structure that is not required for an utterance to be considered grammatical. As Ellis (1997) claims the most common group of errors is misformation, which considers using sentences with the wrong form of the structure. As an example Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982 cited in Ellis 1994,p.56) offer some samples of wrong forms such as: He did not went there (Dulay, Burt and Krashen cited in Ellis (1994)). Evidence of misordering is found when some morphemes are in the wrong order. For instance What he is reading?. It is noteworthy that this kind of error taxonomy only shows which errors are the most frequent. However , it was not possible to explain how L2 is learned. Therefore a better framework was introduced by Corder (1973) who presented three steps in learning according to error nature and degree of systematicity: Presystematic stage Systematic stage Postsystematic stage In the first stage according to Brown (1980) learners do not know the language structure well, they experiment what results in making many errors. Moreover, students are not aware of particular systems or rules in L2 and they produce random errors. The presystematic stage is seen as the time when students know some rules which they attempt to apply but unsuccessfully. The learner can explain his errors by providing linguistic messages in different structures. However, self correctness is still not possible in this phase. The next stage assumes that learners appear to have acquired a rule. Brown (1980) mentions a term backsliding to errors which can occur in this stage. Brown (1980,p.170) defines it as a form of linguistic regression arising out of the natural spiraling characteristic of human learning Appearance of postsystematic stage is found when learners make errors which can be corrected. As Brown (1980) claims at this stage errors seem to be infrequent. Moreover, learners are p rone to produce correct utterances but it happens inconsistently. The rules were learned but the learners was unsuccessful due to a lapse or lack of attention. 2.4.3. Explanation of errors After identifying and describing the errors in SLA the researchers tried to find the explanation why these language behaviours occurred. There are numerous interpretations underlying error appearance. According to Taylor (1986) the sources of errors can be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and epistemic. The first group of sources regards the nature of L2 system and the problems learners have in using it. Sociolinguistic sources concern learners abilities to adjust his language in terms of the social context. The last category involves the learners lack of world knowledge. Psycho-linguistic sources of errors, were created by Richards (1974) who proposed a special figure accounting for them and enumerating certain mental phenomenon being in charge or certain accuracy failures, that is Performance errors including transfer, interlingual (overgeneralization, transitional competence, induced errors Performance related to processing problems and communication strategies. Apart from the psycho-linguist sources Richard aimed at giving more origins which resulted in a list of three more sources that include Interference related errors 2.Intralingual errors are divided into four following subcategories: Over -generalization involves creating deviant structures in place of two target language structures (Ellis,1994,p.59). It can also be related to redundancy reduction. It may occur with forms which do not carry important contrasts for the learner. This means that ending -ed- in Past Simple can be omitted. As a result learners produce sentences like: I go to University yesterday. ignorance of rule restrictions involves application of rules which should not appear in contexts. This is a type of transfer when the learner uses structures that have been previously acquired. It can occur even when the target language is close to the mother tongue. Some rule restriction errors may derive from analogy which is a major factor in the wrong use of prepositions. Learners may attempt to use the same prepositions by analogy what leads to producing sentences: He explained me the book from the sentence He showed me the book. Another example of the analogy can be seen in article usage. incomplete rule application, that reflects errors related to analogy. The structures in learners production is not fully developed. This may result in producing declarative word order in questions like: You like to swim? instead of Do you like to swim? false concepts hypothesized can originate from faulty comprehension in the target language. This type of error appears when learners use structures was or were as a marker of Past Simple Tense in example: One day it was happened. Developmental errors, which reflect learners competence and show general features of language acquisition. These errors are caused due to learners limited experience. In contrary Richards (1974, p.174) claims that they illustrate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the language. Another linguist who attempted to outline origins of errors was Brown (1980,p.173).whose classification was similar to Richards view. However he added a few more sources of errors that are significant in a teachers understanding of learners interlanguage systems The author recognised such sources as: communication strategies, prefabricated patterns and language switch. George (1972) presented a few arguments related to error derivation. He assumed that some sources of errors are universal. Furthermore, Richard and Sampson (1974) distinguished causes of errors which fall into seven categories: Transfer Intralingual interference Sociolinguistic situation Modality of exposure to TL Age Successions of approximative systems Universal hierarchy of difficulty Apart from interlingual and intralingual sources James (1998) attempted to distinguished another type of sources such as induced errors. Another term described this kind of error was introduced by Brown, who called it context of learning. As Stenson (1974) explains these errors derive from the classroom situation. They occur when learners receive faulty explanation of grammatical rules. Such errors can show teachers the level of the students language competence. 2.4.3.1. Transfer The problem of language transfer has been explained by many researchers. It is believed that it plays a very important role in second language acquisition. According to Ellis (1997) transfer refers to an attempt to use the knowledge of languages that have been learned previously. Learners use their mother tongue experience in order to organize the second language data. They try to create their own rules, construct their grammars. Dulay, Burt and Krashen ( 1982: 101) describe it as the automatic, uncontrolled and subconscious use of past learned behaviors in the attempt to produce new responses According to Arabski (1997) there are numerous factors playing role in transfer occurring. They include learners age, type of language structure and interlanguage development. Littlewood (1984) and many other linguists distinguish two types o

Logotherapy: Meaning of Life and Frankl Essay

Viktor Frankl was an Austrian man born in 1905. He was the father of Logotherapy which is referred to as the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy. Frankl followed in the footsteps of other famous psychologists including Sigmund Freud. He pioneered the thought that a person can move forward in one’s life after a traumatic or rough experience by finding new meaning in life. Though many of his ideas were derived from Freud’s and Adlers previous thoughts, he also took an new approach to helping people. Thus the beginning of Logotherapy. He was first published in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis when he was in high school. He then went to secondary school and began working on his degree in psychiatry and Neurology in medical school. Frankl went to the same school in Viennese as Sigmund Freud. At first Frankl was extremely interested in Freudian psychoanalysis but soon started to disagree with his therapy methods. Frankl thought that Freuds views were to narrow and did not agree with Freud’s idea’s that sexual impulses could explain the majority of human behavior (Hoffman, 1995). After studying Freudian psychoanalysis, he became interested and focused on environmental and societal factor to explain human behavior, which was Alfred Adler’s psychology view (Frankl, Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography , 1997). While studying the teachings of Freud and Adler he began forming his own very different therapy known was logotherapy, which is defined as healing through meaning. After graduation he was promoted in the hospital in Vienna to the head of suicide and depression prevention, where he treated over 3,000 women. During this time, he formed his own private practice where he began to utilize logotherapy (Frankl, Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography, 1997). He then could ask his clients questions about how they were feeling and what was keeping them alive and moving forward in such a low time in their lives. He then noticed because of the question that he was asking people seem to be suffering from lack of meaning in their lives than the loss of employment (Hoffman, 1995). In 1937 Frankl started to write articles about what he called logotherapy. Then in 1938, Frankl had to give up his private practice and was forced to relocate. He was transferred to the Rothschild hospital where he could only treat Jewish patients; due to the Nazi control (Hoffman, 1995). The Nazi euthanasia program forced extermination on many clients who were suffering from brain injuries and psychological illnesses, and Frankl was forced to watch these executions. To try and save the mentally ill personnel he began to falsify documents to help avoid euthanasia. He would change their diagnosis so that they would not be transferred for the euthanasia program and could stay with their families. While at the hospital he would get about a dozen of men and women who attempted to commit suicide. Where he tried to help them find meaning and life and to continue the fight. He was then married in 1941 to Tilly Grosser, and a year later Frankl’s and his family were arrested and brought to concentration camps. While in the concentration camps Frankl knew that he could not change his situation but could help those around him and himself by counseling in his barracks. During his imprisonment Frankl dug ditches, volunteered at the typhus ward, and also set up a suicide prevention program (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). After the long hard days of the prisoners being beaten, starved, Frankl would help the prisoners understand that their experiences were helping them develop strengths for the future (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). When Frankl was in Auschwitz he first wrote â€Å"The Doctor and the Soul† and it was then discovered and then the book was destroyed. In April of 1945 Frankl’s camp was liberated. Frankl and his sister were the only two who survive during their stay throughout the various concentration camps. His father died from starvation and his mother and wife were murdered by the gas chambers. He then reconstructed his book â€Å"The Doctor and the Soul† and it was then published, and nine days following he published a second book which sold over 11 million copies before he died and became known as â€Å"Man’s Search for Meaning†. The original title of that book was â€Å"Saying yes to life in spite of everything†. This book describes his experiences throughout his stay in concentration camps and also his theory of logotherapy (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). During this time Frankl met his second wife named Elenore Schwindt and had a baby girl soon after they were wed. Frankl went on to author over 38 books and to speak around the world on his experiences and logotherapy. Frankl lived a long life and died on September 2, 1997 when he was 92 years old. Logos is a Greek word that which stands for meaning. Therefore logotherapy focuses on a person’s search for meaning, the search relates to finding purpose in one’s life or tasks (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Frankl found that humans are more oriented towards meaning and seek meaning in all their circumstances (Kimble & Ellor, 2009). The idea of logotherapy began back in 1921 when Frankl was still in high school (Guttmann, 1996). Then while in the concentration camps, the people who had a better chance of survival were those that had hope of being reunited with loved ones, ones with faith, or ones that felt as if they had a purpose in life that they had to complete. This is how logotherapy started off by 1960 logotherapy gained worldwide recognition. Logotherapist do not tell their patients what to see but simply corrects their ability to see (Kimble & Ellor, 2009). Logotherapist also help search for positive meaning that underlines behavior, thought and action. Throughout therapy certain techniques are used. Paradoxical intention is a technique used to help patients with anxiety, phobias and obsessive compulsions (Guttmann, 1996). It is part of therapy when you confront your fears, in essence you tell yourself to do the opposite of what you truly want, like try not to fall asleep when you are truly trying to sleep. A specific strategy that logotherapist use is dereflection; it is used when clients focus on negatives (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). Dereflection is a technique that you shift attention from oneself and onto others, problems often disappear. Frankl noted that the meaning of life is different from person to person and from situation to situation. Therefore he states that there is not a general meaning in life for all humanity (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). There were three different basic principles that are composed to make up logotherapy, and help discover meaning. The first basic principle of logotherapy is life has meaning under all circumstances. The second principle is that all people have a will to achieve meaning in their life. Finally the third principle is people have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to find meaning (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Throughout a clients therapy the goals concerning the outcome of their treatment consist of the client being able to be aware of his/her choices. The goals guide the clients to understand current experience, and past experiences and the meaning for the purpose of life. They also recognize factors that block freedom and can accept freedom and responsibility. The tragic triad is composed of three different elements guilt, death, and unavoidable suffering. Any part of the tragic triad can happen to anyone and it will always be a part of mankind. Each person reacts differently to each situation. When we are faced with one of these elements it is then when we realize we need to improve our lives and begin to act. Situations cannot be changed but your attitude on the situation can be (Guttmann, 1996). But when life has no meaning it becomes empty, is what Frankl calls existential vacuum. The existential vacuum creates a hole, which needs to be filled. People try to fill their hole with superficial things or anything that provides some satisfaction; such as drugs, eating to an excess or not at all, anger, obsession, or fear. Behaviors such as depression, aggression and addiction were caused by the loss of meaning. There are also two levels of meaning. Ultimate meaning is a meaning that we can never reach. It can be a god or science as the search for truth, nature, and evolution for those who do not believe in god or an ultimate being (Guttmann, 1996). The other level of meaning is meaning in the moment, which is the understanding meaning of each moment by fulfilling the demands that life places on us. Frankl points out that there are three ways to find meaning in life and is often referred to as the meaning triangle. The first way to find meaning is through creative works. It is what and how we give to the world through self-expression. The second is by experiencing; by what we take or receive from the world through nature, culture, relationships, and interactions with others and with our environment. The third way to find meaning is with a change of attitude. Even if we can’t change the situation or the circumstances, we can still choose our attitude towards the condition. These are the ways that a client can help find meaning in their life. These attitudinal values as Frankl calls them, is when being confronted with a hopeless situation a person has a way to find meaning (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Throughout Frankl’s life he was inspired to help people. While throughout his experiences he was able to develop logotherapy which has become a widely used therapy process and techniques. His life experiences and trials helped him to form a therapy that not only people with issues should follow but all of us as well. He still helps find people a meaning and purpose in life. References Frankl, V. (1955). The Doctor and the Soul. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1959). Man’s Search for Meaning. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1997). Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography . New York: Plenum. Guttmann, D. (1996). Logotherapy for the Helping Professional. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Hoffman, E. (1995, March 18). Viktor Frankl at 90: A Voice for Life. America, pp. 17-22. Ivey, A. E. , Ivey, M. B. , & Zalaquett, C. P. (2010). Intentional Intervieing & Counseling. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Kimble, M. A. , & Ellor, W. J. (2009). Logotherapy: An Overview. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 11:3-4, 9-24.

Business Performance Measurement Using Balanced Scorecard Critical Review Accounting Essay

In a rapid turning economic universe, companies ‘ direction has ever sought for ways and metric to estimate if a company ‘s concern public presentation aligns to its scheme. Performance metric is critical in doing direction a possible exercising and aid in replying some common inquiries like what are our ends and how effectual is our scheme? As one of the most important recent inventions in history, the Balanced Scorecard foremost proposed by Kaplan and Norton in 1992 defines a methodological analysis that can be used by direction for end scenes or strategic preparation and public presentation measuring from fiscal and non-financial or operational point of view. It is besides aimed at heightening organisational public presentation by leting companies ‘ chief organisational procedures to be better managed by directors to better competitory market place and company public presentation. The outlooks of directors are high, and this explains why academic and managerial i nvolvement in this direction tool is on the addition. This paper critically examines plants or research done by outstanding writers on this topic to see the verve of Balanced Scorecard as a concern public presentation measuring tool in modern economic system. Literatures on Balanced Scorecard are on the rise as its methodological analysis become popular among top concerns. Gumbus and Lussier ( 2006 ) in their work, examined Balanced Scorecard and its characteristics ( ) , and why little medium concerns are recommended to utilize it as a metric for concern public presentation. Their surveies came at the clip when Balanced Scorecard is non been widely adopted by SME but by the large companies as a public presentation measuring method. Braam and Nijssen ( 2008 ) discuss factors impacting Balanced Scorecard acceptance and the two cardinal constructs of Balanced Scorecard use in recent clip: as a public presentation measuring system ( PMS ) and as a strategic direction system ( SMS ) . [ 4 ] carried out researches to look into if the Balanced Scorecard add values to companies that adopt it and how it does contributes to the public presentation of an organisation. [ 5 ] examines a outstanding characteristic of Balanced Scorecard cause and conse quence relationship and if Balanced Scorecard can associate operational prosodies with scheme which can be understood and influenced by directors as a valid strategic direction tool. [ 7 ] took a practical attack in discoursing ways that Balanced Scorecard can be used by undertaking directors to step and better the operational public presentation of their squad and besides clarifies aims and concern scheme. These literature discuses extensively on public presentation measuring with Balanced Scorecard cutting across assorted use and industries every bit good as farther elaborated in the advancement of this paper. Most surveies focus on large companies the scarceness of surveies associating to Balanced Scorecard been used in SME for concern scheme motivated [ 1 ] to ship on shutting this spread. They used a instance survey methodological analysis attack on three little concern endeavors. Research was conducted through personal interviews with executives at Hyde Park Electronics, Futura Industries, and Southern Gardens Citrus ( SGC ) . [ 1 ] examine each of the SME to place how of their concern scheme and public presentation aligns with the Balanced Scorecard features both in the short footings and long term. Financial metric, as indicated in their survey, is sale from new merchandise accounting for high net income of the organisation. The Operational Quality was identified to same-day bringing, bringing within five yearss, and on-time bringing. Customer Satisfaction metric was detected to be indicated by increased gross revenues and increased income that would ensue from merchandise credence a nd the coevals of repetition clients. Learning and Growth metric see the induction of employee public assistance plans such as benefits, net income sharing, preparation, and employee communicating and employee activities. By the above findings, [ 1 ] farther cited that about half of the large corporations in recent times has improved public presentation with the usage of Balanced Scorecard as operational and strategic measuring. The instance surveies affecting the SMEs rhenium seen to besides profit from utilizing this direction tool. [ 1 ] The consequences of the instance surveies of Hyde Park Electronics, Futura Industries, and SGC support the anterior literature from big companies. The consequences once more indicated that enterprisers can excessively profit from developing and utilizing a BSC. The benefit or value gotten from utilizing BSC was investigated by [ 4 ] , and in their survey, two research hypotheses were developed: how much does the Balanced Scorecard create value and secondly, how does the Balanced Scorecard create value? For the first inquiry [ 4 ] adopted the usage of Activity-Based Cost Management ( ABCM ) model, in comparing to BSC effectivity in happening how organizational ends aligns to people ‘s public presentation. The 2nd inquiries saw the usage of the Strategy-Focused-Organisation ( SFO ) to research the beginnings of possible value created by BSC. The methodological analysis used was quantitative in nature and an empirical study and analysis of informations collected from EU companies that have used BSC. In their findings, [ 4 ] argued that value is so been added to companies by the usage of BSC. They indicated that the public presentation of an organisation comes chiefly from what it does during scheme interlingual rendition, its consistence in act uponing managerial patterns, and its function in resources alignment to strategic aims i.e. from the agencies to the terminal. The surveies of [ 4 ] hinted the construct of following BSC for PMS every bit good as SMS. Thus, [ 2 ] , in their research differentiate these lifting constructs of Balanced Scorecard ( public presentation measuring system ( PMS ) and strategic direction system ( SMS ) ) , and factors impacting their acceptances by companies as shown the survey done by [ 2 ] . Hypothesiss were developed to steer and develop their methodological analysis which involves quantitative attack. Data aggregation was done by questionnaires sent to 40 Dutch houses gotten from database of companies which had responded to a benchmark study for best patterns in direction control and public presentation measuring in the four areas/domains of involvement of the Balanced Scorecard. [ 2 ] indicated in their findings that the acceptance of both types of Balanced Scorecard benefits from top direction engagement. Consequences besides show that utilizing Balanced Scorecard as PMS will profit from the support of the admi nistration ‘s finance section. They besides cited that Balanced Scorecard as PMS accent on an inclusive measurings of both fiscal and non-financial values which gives valuable image of the company ‘s place in the market. However, public presentation metric indexs cut across the cardinal characteristics of BSC itself, as such [ 5 ] in their survey analysed the cardinal premises of BSC and the relationships among the four countries of measuring suggested ( the fiscal, client, internal-business-process and learning and growing positions ) and its consequence on scheme and public presentation of an organisation. Research inquiry to steer their survey was besides raised: is there a causal relationship between the countries of measuring suggested? The methodological analysis that was used is analytic because, as argued, increases preciseness and lucidity degree in understanding the BSC construct and theoretical account. Past and present literatures were widely analysed. [ 5 ] one cardinal findings indicated that companies ‘ do non necessitate to see priori concern scheme before planing a coherent set of public presentation measurings reasoning that the design of public presentation indexs can work as a accelerator for scheme preparation. The preparation of scheme entails the development of undertakings to transform them into operational aims. This is further discussed by [ 6 ] in their survey. They used the BSC methodological analysis in their survey to develop, trial, and use a strategic measuring system, specifically for undertakings. The attack adopted was a comparing and study of two undertakings monitored by the writers and undertaken by undertaking squad. Their consequence indicated that BSC plays important function in bettering undertaking direction effectivity. They besides argue or indicated that balanced public presentation measuring is an of import technique for set uping on-strategy undertaking bringing The above surveies further give more penetration on the construct of BSC as a public presentation measuring tool that is best used in exciting thought of comparative steps in the critical success factors of any concern. Thus, organizational public presentation sees an addition when, as the chief tool, BSC is used to interpret the scheme of the house. In this respect, BSC contributes positively [ 4 ] [ 6 ] . However, the acceptance of BSC in an organisation depends to a great extent on the degree of top direction and product-market kineticss every bit good as the finance section. If a company is in a competitory market, client satisfaction and fiscal values are of extreme importance to exceed direction and finance section. These public presentation prosodies influence the preparation of scheme and therefore the acceptance of BSC particularly as public presentation measuring system [ 2 ] . However, the support of top direction and the employees ‘ deduction do non look to be requi rement conditions to do the successful development of a BSC [ 4 ] . The influence of BSC on departmental units and internal administrations within the house can be detected in undertaking squads. The BSC clarify and improves strategic step and connexions thereby bettering internal public presentation in traditional deliverables. It is importance to observe that at that place does non be one BSC that matches all administrations but BSC development is team-based [ 1 ] [ 6 ] . Furthermore, as indicated by [ 6 ] , companies ‘ operational aims in undertakings become a direction success as internal sections are exposed to run of strategic-performance indictor which clarifies and proctors project vision and ends. [ 4 ] Surveies indicated that despite the broad acceptance of BSC in recent times, the methodological analysis is non free from defects. Kaplan and Norton describe the relationship among the characteristic of BSC as causal ( cause and consequence ) , i.e. one metric taking to another, and a dependence relationship. This nevertheless, an issue as for case, the satisfaction of clients does non basically give good fiscal consequences hence the relationship is a logical and non causal one as it is inherit in the BSC construct. This portends that the premises made by BSC possibly invalid taking to the expectancy of public presentation indexs which are faulty, ensuing in sub-optimal public presentation [ 5 ] The reviewed surveies are non without restrictions as hinted by the writers. The research by [ 1 ] is marked with a restriction in instance survey attack as at that place does non be any survey on BSC been used by little concern at the clip of the survey. Furthermore, the plausibleness of findings did non protect against the research restrictions in the survey done by [ 2 ] . The generalizability of the findings was edged by a restriction in the sample size, the respondents ‘ chiefly fiscal background, and the usage of cross sectional informations to look into the degree of acceptance of both BSC types at the same time. [ 4 ] besides highlighted that measuring or mensurating the public presentation of an organisation is a difficult scientific discipline. Again, in their survey, sample houses did n't hold unvarying execution of the BSC construct. One restriction of this paper is that it is analytic which is based on researching surveies and researches associating to BSC. Trustin g on these beginnings can, nevertheless, non be deem insightful as an empirical survey. Further research is necessary and should be expanded on about all concern service sectors on how BSC is used to aline concerns to capital budgeting processing. Larger sample size should be used every bit good as extra factors, for case consideration of institutional motives for BSC acceptance. The influence of BSC on the internal relationship between sections and undertaking squads should besides be researched.DecisionThe balanced scorecard is a tool which methodically expands the measuring zones traditionally involved in accounting. Its cardinal end is to cut down the issues associated with the usage of fiscal steps for control intents by infixing non-financial measurings in a strategic control model [ 5 ] . The connexion between concern scheme and aims utilizing BSC creates an apprehension of public presentation measuring and metric that guides the co-ordinated and careful action of directors. Surveies analysed in this paper show that the BSC creates and adds value to organisations that adopt it and promotes more reliable communicating effectual plenty for direction decision-making. Therefore while the adopting of BSC is on the rise by more concerns, this paper analytically shows the positive part of BSC to the public presentation of an administration with an increasing organic structure of cogent evidence.[ 1 ] Gumbus, Andra. & A ; Lussier, Robert N. ( 2006 ) . Entrepreneurs Use a Balanced Scorecard to Translate Strategy into Performance Measures. Journal of Small Business Management, 44 ( 3 ) : 407-425.[ 5 ] Norreklit, H. ( 2000 ) , â€Å" The Balance on the Balanced Scorecard-A Critical Analysis of Some of its Assumptions † , Management Accounting Research, 11 ( 1 ) pp. 65-88.

The Bluest Eyes By Toni Morrison - 984 Words

The Bluest Eyes by Toni Morrison is a short novel that revolves around a young girl named Pecola Breedlove who is a victim to incest and rape by her own father Cholly. In the town Lorain, Ohio Pecola becomes friends with a young nine year old girl named Claudia MacTeer and her ten year old sister Frieda. The MacTeer family takes in Pecola Breedlove when her father Cholly attempts to burn her house down and hits her mother, Pauline. Pecola is described as a quiet and soft spoken. Her life at home is difficult because of the domestic violence and her father’s abuse of alcohol. Pecola is under the impression that if she were prettier her parents would be nicer to each other. She equalizes beauty with whiteness. She begins to pray for a pair of pretty blue eyes so the world can view her differently and change the way she sees the world. Soon after Pecola returns home she gets raped. The town soon finds out after Pecola becomes pregnant and although everyone in town wants the baby dead, Claudia and Frieda hope the baby lives. Pauline and Pecola pickup and move after Pecola loses the baby and starts to lose her sanity. In the end Pecola sees a psychic to obtain the blue eyes and she really believes he gave her blue eyes. The major theme in this novel outside of incest is how race is perceived in the eyes of young girls and how it is associated with beauty and purity. Among the theme of race are love, sex, innocence, and the roles of black women. Race to Pecola revolved aroundShow MoreRelatedThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison1720 Words   |  7 Pagesof The Bluest Eye, Toni Morrison, criticizes the danger of race discrimination for any kinds of situations with no exception. The purpose of the paper is explain how pervasive and destructive social racism was bound to happen in American society. The intended audiences are not only black people, but also other races had suffered racism until now. I could find out and concentrate on the most notable symbols which ar e whiteness, blue eyes and the characterization while reading the novel. Toni MorrisonRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison1587 Words   |  7 Pagessaid, â€Å"We were born to die and we die to live.† Toni Morrison correlates to Nelson’s quote in her Nobel Lecture of 1993, â€Å"We die. That may be the meaning of life. But we do language. That may be the measure of our lives.† In Toni Morrison’s novel, The Bluest Eye, she uses language to examine the concepts of racism, lack of self-identity, gender roles, and socioeconomic hardships as they factor into a misinterpretation of the American Dream. Morrison illustrates problems that these issues provoke throughRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison956 Words   |  4 PagesHistory of Slavery Influenced the Characters of The Bluest Eye Unlike so many pieces of American literature that involve and examine the history of slavery and the years of intensely-entrenched racism that ensued, the overall plot of the novel, The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison, does not necessarily involve slavery directly, but rather examines the aftermath by delving into African-American self-hatred. Nearly all of the main characters in The Bluest Eye who are African American are dominated by the endlessRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison1189 Words   |  5 PagesA standard of beauty is established by the society in which a person lives and then supported by its members in the community. In the novel The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison, we are given an extensive understanding of how whiteness is the standard of beauty through messages throughout the novel that whiteness is superior. Morrison emphasizes how this ideality distorts the minds and lives of African-American women and children. He emphasizes that in order for African-American wom en to survive in aRead MoreThe Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison1095 Words   |  5 PagesSocial class is a major theme in the book The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison. Toni Morrison is saying that there are dysfunctional families in every social class, though people only think of it in the lower class. Toni Morrison was also stating that people also use social class to separate themselves from others and apart from race; social class is one thing Pauline and Geraldine admire.Claudia, Pecola, and Frieda are affected by not only their own social status, but others social status too - for exampleRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison2069 Words   |  9 Pagesblack/whiteness. Specifically, white people were positioned at the upper part of the hierarchy, whereas, African Americans were inferior. Consequently, white people were able to control and dictate to the standards of beauty. In her novel, ‘The Bluest Eye’, Toni Morrison draws upon symbolism, narrative voice, setting and id eals of the time to expose the effects these standards had on the different characters. With the juxtaposition of Claudia MacTeer and Pecola Breedlove, who naively conforms to the barrierRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison1103 Words   |  5 Pages Toni Morrison is known for her prized works exploring themes and issues that are rampant in African American communities. Viewing Toni Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye from a psychoanalytical lens sheds light onto how, as members of a marginalized group, character’s low self-esteem reflect into their actions, desires, and defense mechanisms. In her analysis of psychoanalytical criticism, Lois Tyson focuses on psychological defense mechanisms such as selective perception, selective memory, denialRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison Essay1314 Words   |  6 PagesThe Bluest Eye, by Toni Morrison, encompasses the themes of youth, gender, and race. The African American Civil Rights Movement had recently ended at the time the novel was written. In the book, Morrison utilizes a first-person story to convey her views on racial inequality. The protagonist and her friends find themselves in moments where they are filled with embarrassment and have a wish to flee such events. Since they are female African Americans, they are humiliated in society. One of Morrison’sRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison1462 Words   |  6 PagesBildungsroman literature in the 20th century embodies the virtues of different authors’ contexts and cultures, influencing the fictional stories of children’s lives around the wo rld.. The Bluest Eye is a 1970 publication by Toni Morrison set in 1940s Ohio in America, focal around the consequence of racism in an American community on the growth of a child, distinct in its use of a range of narrative perspectives. Annie John by Jamaica Kincaid is a novel set in post colonial Antigua, published in 1985Read MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison992 Words   |  4 PagesSet in the 1940s, during the Great Depression, the novel The Bluest Eye, by Toni Morrison, illustrates in the inner struggles of African-American criticism. The Breedloves, the family the story revolves around a poor, black and ugly family. They live in a two-room store front, which is open, showing that they have nothing. In the family there is a girl named Pecola Breedlove, she is a black and thinks that she is ugly because she is not white. Pecola’s father, Cholly Breedlove, goes through humiliated